A different explanation of how the economy works
1. Greater Premise
The facts have proved that respect for economic
freedom is fundamental to improving the living conditions of societies. But
this respect for economic freedom is not enough because in the countries where
it is applied there are also big problems such as unemployment,
underemployment, low wages, inflation and deflation. It is thus proved that the
orthodox free market model does not guarantee the full employment of workers or
fair wages. In the United States, which is the world capitalist model society,
the market is not in balance, there are millions of poor people, homeless
people who sleep on the streets, millions of people absent from the health
system because they cannot afford insurance, privatized higher education closes
the door to millions of students, many companies keep their factories abroad to
reduce costs which prevents the full utilization of the productive potential of
that country, the minimum income is insufficient to meet the needs of workers
and in a society in such conditions obviously the market can not be in balance.
Something similar happens in part of Western Europe; The level of unemployment
is high in Spain, Portugal, Italy, Greece and other countries; Pensions and
general incomes of workers have been reduced and also the public health and
education services; It is clear that in these countries the market is not in
equilibrium either, although global indicators such as GDP can show positive
signs.
2. Objectives
of the essay
In this paper I want to express the following:
A) That in the real world the economy is not a science
because its laws are not always and unfailingly fulfilled; For example, a
surplus supply of goods does not always bring as a consequence a reduction in
the prices because the market may prefer to discard surplus production rather
than reduce the price; Something similar happens with an increase in demand
since economic agents may prefer to import rather than increase its production.
In none of the above cases are the laws of the market obeyed. The fundamental
requirement of science is the certainty and permanence of its postulates in
time: for example, that heat expands bodies is a valid scientific truth now and
always; But the economy cannot present absolute truths like those of the exact
sciences because it is only theory that is sometimes fulfilled and sometimes it
is not fulfilled in practice; The reason very simple: because the economy depends on the most
variable that exists in the world, human behavior.
B) The economy has tried to achieve some degree of
accuracy with the incorporation of mathematics but has not really achieved. For
example, if mathematical models of prediction were successful then major
economic crises should not occur, but in reality this is not the case.
C) Perfect competition does not exist and on that
premise was that economists founded the basic laws of economics. If perfect
competition does not exist in practice then all the argumentation built on that
basis is only theoretical.
D) In the
economic reality there are multiple markets with their own and different
characteristics that hinder the existence of a general equilibrium, which is a
balance of all markets simultaneously.
E) The desire to accumulate more wealth is the force
that drives the owners of capital and to achieve wealth are able to do
anything, as well recognized Adam Smith in his famous phrase in which he said
that "a meeting of traders cannot come out anything other than a
conspiracy to raise prices. "
F) No one can assure that the economic agents act in a
100% rational way influencing in that way in the market; Human egoism is
contrary to rationality.
G) The equilibrium price promoted by supply and demand
is a fiction because in the reality of all countries, from the most liberal to
the least, there are multiple factors that impose costs and prices, including
regulations such as legal interest rates, the minimum wage, taxes, import and
export restrictions, maximum prices for some products and other legal restrictions,
what economists call externalities, which are above the impact of supply and
demand on prices.
(H) Unemployment, underemployment, miserable wages,
inflation and speculation are the most common and important economic shocks
that have always been present in history and constitute the main causes of the
poverty of nations.
I) The Quantitative Theory of Money that attributes
inflation to money abundance is only partially true.
J) Prices, when they go up, are not easy to get down.
Entrepreneurs increase prices but struggle not to raise wages.
K) Economic indicators such as GDP do not reflect the
true reality of the economy or the well-being of the population of the
countries.
L) Economic policy defines the direction of the
economy in all societies, including those in the free market; that means that
in reality it is not the market but the governments that ultimately decides the
entire economic process, from the forms of ownership to how much to pay taxes.
3. Synthesis
From the eighteenth century until now, the first
decades of the twenty-first century, orthodox economics has employed the idea
of the invisible hand of the market as a determinant of equilibrium in the
economy. This idea, expressed by Adam Smith in the eighteenth century, was
accepted by the rest of the classical economists and then by the leading
exponent of the marginalist economy, Marie-Espirit-Léon Walras (1834-1910),
through his Theory of Equilibrium General of Supply and Demand, and by Alfred
Marshall (1842-1924) the leading figure in neoclassical economics, which
developed the Theory of Partial Equilibrium. Both theories have so far been
considered by orthodox economics as the correct explanation of how the economy
works.
4. What is the Theory of General Equilibrium of Supply and Demand?
The general theory of the balance between supply and
demand means that in a market of perfect competition in supply and demand there
are no significant changes as the lack or abundance of goods and services
because the market produces and consumes the quantities it needs and that if
any alteration is generated, the same market corrects it through prices,
increasing or decreasing them. Adam Smith (1723-1790), founder of classical
economics, first exposed the essence of this idea in his book The Wealth of Nations, published in
1776, that is just 26 years after the beginning of the First Industrial
Revolution. This fact is important because it reveals that Adam Smith knew only
the first stage of the new form of industrial production and that his
fundamental experience was based on the behavior of the agricultural and
commercial society inaugurated in the Modern Age, from the discovery of
America. Smith, therefore, did not thoroughly know the economic and social
results of the new form of industrial production and that makes his theory cannot
adequately explain the reality after him.
5. Previous
Developments
It should be noted, however, that a prior explanation
of the balance between supply and demand in the economy was implicitly, not
explicitly, given by the Physiocrats in the eighteenth century; In fact, Dr.
Francoise Quesnay, the most important figure in Physiocracy, considered the
first school of economic thought, first proposed, implicitly, the concept of
equilibrium that would later be developed by classical economists. Quesnay, who
was a physician, knew that any alteration in any part of the human body, that
is, any imbalance, modify health as a whole and applied that same idea to the
economic process, so he proposed to allow greater freedom to the economy without
the intervention of political power. Quesnay and the Physiocrats thus responded
to the mercantilist thesis, which had been established in Europe since the
seventeenth century, which held that trade and precious metals were the cause
of the wealth of nations, for which was necessary the intervention of the State
in economy. Adam Smith, considered the founder of classical economics,
continued the liberal idea of the
Physiocrats and synthesized it in his famous phrase "the invisible hand of
the market" which he considers capable of ordering the whole economic process
and, consequently, supply and demand.
6. Supply,
Demand, Money and Inflation
Since ancient times the effect of money on supply,
demand and inflation has been known. In fact, history reveals that the Roman
Empire suffered for a long time the inflationary problem and some authors
attribute to that phenomenon one of the main causes of its fall. The Roman
emperors at various times made changes in monetary policy by devaluing the
metallic content of the coins and regulating some prices such as the price of
wheat. But it was Emperor Diocletian (244-311) who adopted the broadest policy
on the subject including numerous assets in regulation and establishing the
death penalty for those who violated it. This fact highlights the seriousness
of the problem at that historical moment.
The Middle Age was inaugurated with the fall of the
Roman Empire in the year 476; it is considered the darkest period in history
and was characterized by Theocentrism, a unique influence of God and the
Catholic Church in all aspects of life. From this period there is very little
evidence of important studies and among them it is worth mentioning the great
philosophical and religious work of St. Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274), who
condemned usury, unjust salary and unjust price; His most notable book is Summa Theological. Another important
philosopher and priest of the Middle Age is Nicholas Oresme (1320-1382),
considered the father of the monetary economy, who wrote the first treatise on
the subject in his book Origin, nature
and alterations of the coin (1358). Oresme criticized the devaluation of
the currencies through the diminution of its content of gold and silver but
maintaining its nominal value, which already had become custom in Europe.
The Modern Age, which begins with the discovery of
America in 1492, opens the door to the development of thought and knowledge
that had been truncated throughout the previous historical stage, the Middle
Age.
With the Modern Age the Renaissance was inaugurated in
Europe in all fields of knowledge and the first steps are taken for the
development of the economy as a discipline of study, influenced in a special
way by the discovery of America that brings to Europe immense amounts of gold and
silver plundered by the conquerors. That fact gave rise to the first global
economic conception, Mercantilism, a doctrine that favored foreign trade and
which considered precious metals as the cause of the wealth of nations. The
great wealth of gold and silver brought to Europe created a major monetary
expansion which, in turn, generated significant inflation. In that new scenario
is that the first theses of economics arise.
Martín de Azpilcueta (1492-1586), a Spanish
philosopher and priest, is one of the first figures of the Modern Age to study
economics, and he is credited with the first formulation of the Quantitative
Theory of Money (1556), which raises the relationship between amount of money
in circulation in an economy and the price level.
Jean Bodin (1530-1596) was a student of Martin
Azpilcueta and continued his work on the Quantitative Theory of Money; Bodin
published his thesis on monetary policy in 1568 and later his most important
work, The Republic, in 1576.
In the seventeenth century, Juan de Mariana
(1536-1624), Spanish priest, continued the same critical wave in his book Treatise on the alteration of the currency,
a book that was banned and brought to jail its author.
Later, in the eighteenth century, David Hume
(1711-1776) and then David Ricardo (1772-1823) in the 19th century formulated a
more complete work on the subject. Ricardo following the Quantitative Theory of
Money assured that the prices of goods increase or decrease depending on the
amount of currency in circulation. This thesis was refuted by John Stuart Mill
(1806-1873) who stated the opposite, that is, that changes in prices are what
determine the increase or decrease of the amount of currency.
In the twentieth century, Irving Fisher (1867-1947)
ventures into the subject and introduces the concept of the velocity of
circulation of money to which he attributes the cause of the variation in
prices.
In the twenties and thirties of the twentieth century
the economy experienced a new reality: German hyperinflation and the Great
Depression in the United States. The medicine prescribed by the orthodox
economy, which considered that the invisible hand of the market would recover
the balance, was not successful and was thus a new approach, the recovery
program first undertaken in Germany (Weimar Republic) by the President of the
Reichsbank Hjalmart Schacht (1877-1970) in the 1930s and then the New Deal
policy for the economic recovery executed between 1933 and 1939 by the
President of the United States, Franklin D. Roosevelt. In those years, in 1936,
John Maynard Keynes's General Theory of Occupation, Interest, and Money
(1883-1946) appeared which gave intellectual support for the new policy that
promoted direct investment by the State to stimulate demand and end
unemployment. The program was successful and applied from the thirties to the
early seventies of the twentieth century. A few years earlier, in the 1960s,
signs of inflation and monetary instability began to emerge, caused by Germany,
which then began a process of strengthening its currency, attracting capital to
that country, which affected the value of the dollar; in 1971 it was
disassociated from the gold standard. This, coupled with the new taxes imposed
on oil companies first by Libya and then by the rest of the oil countries
caused inflationary pressures at world level that then peaked after 1974 as a
result of the Arab oil embargo on States United States and the rest of the
Western nations. In this scenario, the questioning arises to the Keynesian
thesis that had not been able to avoid the new inflation. Milton Friedman
(1912-2006) and the Chicago School take the initiative and propose the
resurgence of the neoclassical thesis and the Quantitative Theory of Money to
explain the inflationary phenomenon of that time. This thesis is adopted by the
Prime Minister of Great Britain, Margaret Thatcher, the President of the United
States, Ronald Reagan and international financial organizations, imposing Neoliberalism,
whose main idea was the non-intervention of the State in the economy and the
austerity of public finances to achieve balance. The consequence of this policy
was the privatization of numerous companies and public services in the
countries where Neoliberalism was applied, the increase of the debt of the
developing countries that had crisis in the year 1982 when many countries could
not pay their commitments, loss of sovereignty because of the privatization of
its main economic activities and the increase of poverty, due to the increase
of interest rates and the elimination of labor protection policies, among other
factors. The objective of Neoliberalism was to leave to the invisible hand of
the market the restoration of balance in the economy and the fight against
inflation. Neoliberal politics was fully in force in the 1980s, 1990s and the
beginning of the 21st century but was unsuccessful. The crisis reappeared with
great intensity in 2008, with the collapse of the main financial institutions
of the United States and some of Europe, which again caused the intervention of
the State to avoid the collapse of the economy of those countries, due to the
magnitude of the debts of private financial institutions. The bankers received
the money given by the governments to pay the debts to the savers but many did
not and they were left with the public money.
7. Does the theory of the general equilibrium of
supply and demand really reflect the truth of the market?
To speak of general equilibrium of supply and demand
would have to take into account the balance in each of the existing markets in
an economy and that is very difficult in practice. The equilibrium is the
maximum satisfaction that in a consensual way should obtain each of the
participants in the commercial operations of the market. In each country there
are thousands of markets, each has its own characteristics and obviously in
many of them the phenomenon of equilibrium does not occur because there are
abundances and deficiencies and, consequently, different prices that reflect
those abundances and deficiencies.
8. What determines economic performance?
In the end, what determines the economic results is
the economic policy established by the government in each country. This shows
that the State is really the one who has the last and most important word in
economic matters in all the countries of the world. The degree of economic
freedom is fundamental. The great failure of communism and socialism has been
the excessive intervention of the state.
With the exception of the Nordic countries, the rest of the socialist
experiments have all ended badly.
9. True balance and success
The true balance and success lies in allowing the free
play of the market to the point where it does not affect the general welfare
through monopolistic, oligopolistic, speculation and usury practices; A very
important historical example in that sense was the New Deal policy established
by President Franklin D. Roosevelt in the United States to recover the economy
after the Great Depression of 1929.
The State must also promote economic and social
development through its different policies, promoting private initiative,
protecting the rights of workers, and directly carrying out fundamental
activities such as security, health of the population and education, which is
the most important social justice mechanism.